Confronting Stereotypes Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Confronting Stereotypes - Assignment Example By assigning characteristics to large groups, it aids humans in simplifying, organizing, and predicting the society they function. As a result, there is decreased the need to process new information that would distinguish people by individual traits. Sociologist Charles Hurst believes that â€Å"†¦stereotypes (are) the lack of personal, a concrete familiarity that individuals have with persons in other racial or ethnic groups. Lack of familiarity encourages the lumping together of unknown individuals (Hurst 6).† Whatever the theory, it’s clear that stereotypes present a problem for society as they inhibit integration and function in large part to maintain a social caste system where upward mobility faces resistance. One can just view the cases of the maquilas workers on the Mexico – Florida border and the gender stereotypes they endured when attempting to receive fair and equitable wages and positions. Stereotypes are in direct opposition to our right as human beings to the pursuit of happiness and personal betterment. Begin by writing in black marker on the poster board one of the stereotypes you identified the day before as particularly relevant. For example, ‘Women Should Be Mothers and Men Should Work.’ Ask the students what it means to be a woman and if they believe they should be allowed to hold careers. Write their responses down. Then ask the students what it means to be a man and then record the responses under a different column. At this point, you should circle the responses under the woman category and circle the responses under the man category. There should be some overlapping responses and you should draw a line or circle chart that illustrates these. The journal activity can be used to prompt the upcoming classroom discussion, but should also tacitly leads students to internalize the negative effects of stereotypes and the way they have been unconsciously influenced to accept them as facts.

Cisco Case Analysis Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Cisco Case Analysis - Research Paper Example As per the 2010 company data, Cisco employed over 60,000 people and earned annual revenue of US$ 40 billion. Despite the adversities of 2009 global financial crisis, the company remains an attractive investment option for global investors. Networking industry comprises of a number of huge players like IBM. Therefore, the degree of competitive rivalry is very high in this sector. In addition, threat of substitutes is also high in networking industry since majority of the networking equipment is substitutable. However, the industry is less affected with the threat of new entrants because entry cost is huge in the networking sector. Evidently, supplier has less bargaining power over networking companies as there are a large number of potential suppliers. Although there are numerous potential suppliers, companies rarely opt to change their suppliers because of high switching cost. At the same time, buyer power is relatively high in the networking industry since modern customers are well informed of the prevailing market prices and increased provider options. Hence, the Porters’ five forces analysis indicates that the networking industry’s external environment does not offer potential opportunities to Cisco. The Cisco was founded in 1984 by two Stanford computer scientists, and the company was made public in 1990. As Nolan (2005) reports, from the beginning, the company concentrated to dominate the dramatically growing ‘internetworking’ market. In 1997, Cisco was included in the top five companies listed by Fortune 500 on the basis of return on revenues and return on assets. In the following year, the company’s market capitalization crossed $100 billion mark. The company overtook Microsoft in 2000. In the same year, some surveys reflected that Cisco products play a role in more than 75% of all internet traffic. Mission statement of Cisco is; â€Å"shape the future of the

We Have No Class (Middle Class) Essay Example for Free

We Have No Class (Middle Class) Essay In Paul Krugman’s Confronting Inequality, we are told, as citizens of the United States, the damages of high and rising inequality within our country. Krugman describes America as a place of unclear economic progress for the middle class while the share of economic growth in the past 3 decades has gone to the wealthy 1%. Krugman next describes the impact such inequality has on our society and republic. First starting with social inequality, he states â€Å"The fact is the vast income inequality inevitably brings vast social inequality inevitably brings vast social inequality in its train† (589). What Krugman is trying to convey is that as the gap between classes grows, it brings with it greater and greater inequality. Within this social system, the author tells us of how desirable school districts are decreasing in number and are becoming much more expensive to live in, making it so that children with low-income parents get a â€Å"bad start† in their education. Krugman also states that corrupt politics are a direct result of the difference between the 1% and rest of the country. Using that point as fuel he argues for the removal of tax cuts for the wealthy. Krugman shows us that the Urban-Brookings Joint Tax Policy Center estimated that if Bush tax breaks expired in 2010 for those who have an income of over $200,000 then the money gained from taxes could fund a universal healthcare system for the entire nation. Krugman’s main solution was to generally close obvious loopholes within the American system. The next problem, Market Inequality, is also brought to inquisition. Krugman says that a raise in minimum wage as well as a steady union movement would assist the wage inequality. Finally, Krugman discusses how accessible these changes are and how rapidly they can happen. He feels as though the changes can be easily reached, but not likely. Richard Wilkinson, a social researcher, discussed in his 2011 â€Å"TED talk† the correlation seen between social issues and the distance in between economic classes. A logical connection can be made to Krugman’s paper on the same topic; however beyond the obvious similarity of a s imilar topic, they seem to agree that America is in sore shape. With Wilkinson’s emphasis on a lack of social mobility he asks if the most important thing for a child is their father’s income. â€Å"Do rich fathers have rich sons and poor fathers have poor sons, or is there no relationship between the two?

Recommendations And Justification For Strategic Options Marketing Essay

Recommendations And Justification For Strategic Options Marketing Essay Introduction From the last three decades hospitality business environment is becoming more aggressive and competitive for the businessmen due to the impact of globalization. Therefore, it is mandatory for every businessman to develop and implement a comprehensive and profitable strategic planning for the survival of their business. A strategy indicating the opportunities to propose, specific targets, and the types of competitive advantages those are to be developed. (Dibb et al., 2006) So strategy preparation is the overall preparation that facilitates the goodness of management procedures. Of import provision takes you after-school the day to day activities of your governance or task. It provides you with the big picture of what you are doing and where you are going. Strategical planning gives you lucidity about what you actually want to achieve and how to go astir achieving it rather than a program of activity for day to day operations. (Janet Shapiro et al., 1998). Strategical management is a continuous process that estimates and controls the activities of the organizations in which the organization is involved. It also helps to evaluate its potential competitors keeping in view the organizations set goals and strategies to achieve the organizational overall objectives. The implementations of these strategies are evaluated on regular basis and if these strategies are not working in the business environment to achieve the organizational goals then these are replaced by new strategies. Stephan P. Robbins and Mary Coulter (2009: 180) tell us: Every organization needs a mission-a statement of its purpose. This mission induces the managers to take favorable actions to accomplish this mission. For instance, the mission of Brook Hotels is Brook Hotels is committed to realizing our guests needs. This statement provides clues to what this organization sees as their purpose. They achieve this, by development and providing innovative dare and first-class hospitality products served by devoted attached highly disciplined vibrant people. In so doing, they always strive to create and sustain prominent returns and value and to honor their sociable and biology responsibilities to the fullest. The managers usually observe the two environments in the situation analysis. External analysis of hotel, so the managers know that what the competition is doing and what the labor supply is like in locations where it operates. Therefore, managers examine both the specific and general enviro nment to see the positive and negative trends (opportunities, threats) of the hotel and then create and develop the strategies accordingly. Internal analysis of hotel provides you the important information of the hotel resources (financial, physical, human and intangibles assets) and capabilities (skills and abilities to do the activities). These resources and capabilities give the hotel a competitive edge. Tools that can be in use to evaluate acceptableness include what if analytic thinking neutral functions. After evaluation all the strategies are going to be implemented in a developed organizational structure and design in a way that the company goes towards the profitability. As we know that the hospitality industry is reaching at the maturity due to a large number of competitors and the effect of globalization. Therefore, in order to survive in such a competitive environment, everyone have to work out on the effective strategic formation and implementation. Thus, it is very imp ortant to have a good strategy because organization can only gain the sustainable growth if they have good plans for the consumers as they are the only source of all the revenues help in building a good reputation in the industry. 4. Company Introduction The Hilton Hotels Corporation is recognized worldwide in hospitality industry. It owns over 514 hotels worldwide with over 176,257 rooms. According to Forbes, it is ranked as the 43rd largest private company in the United States. It was founded by Conrad Hilton in 1919 in Cisco, Texas. The corporation has highly regarded hotel brands. Their brand portfolio includes: Hilton Conrad Doubletree Embassy Suites Hotels Hampton Inn, Hampton Inn Suites Hilton Garden Inn Homewood Suites by Hilton, and The Waldorf Astoria Collection Hilton is guided by the principles of Conrad Hilton, in which the company strives to: Consistently delight customers invest in team members Be mindful of the environment Deliver innovative products and services Give back to the communities that are served Expand the family of brands Continuously improve performance Provide a healthy, safe environment for team members, guests and customers Create a culture of pride Strengthen the loyalty of constituents Hilton in recent years, have aimed to target those aged between 25 to 55, and therefore to become more appealing to the younger audience. Most of the Hilton brand hotels are franchised to independent companies. 4.1 Vision Hospitality is all about the individual and at Hilton; we pride ourselves on our unique service culture. Yes I Can! Is our company-wide philosophy which promises that each guest will be treated with a positive service attitude at every point of contact? The hotel manager, the waiter, the receptionist, the porter everyone plays a vital role in delivering a memorable guest experience. 4.2 Mission We provide concern and leisure time travellers with a pick of first-class hospitality products that offering good economic value while reassuring good return to owners and shareholders and inspiration to employees. 4.3 Values of Hilton Hotels H Hospitality: The organization is passionate about delivering exceptional guest experiences I Integrity: To do the right thing all time L- Leadership: To continue its leadership in the industry and also in its communities T- Team work: To perform the tasks in teams O- Ownership: To be the owners of the actions and decisions taken. N- Now: To operate with a sense of urgency and discipline (Hilton, 2010) 5. PESTEL Analysis PESTEL analysis defines the external factors to business, depending on the market Ecological and Legislative factors are included. PESTEL analysis measures the market capability by indicating the areas of growth. Political factors include legislation, international legislation, regulatory bodies, government policies, government terms and change, funding, grants and initiatives and lobby groups. The economic factors comprise domestic economy, international situations and trends, taxation issues, seasonal issues, market and trade cycles, distribution issues and others. The social factors include lifestyle trends, demographics, consumer attitudes, opinions, media views, brand, company, technology image, consumer purchasing patterns, fashion and role models, competing technology development, associated and dependent technologies, replacement technology solutions, maturity of technology information and communication and others. Political Factors: Considering the political factors Hilton Hotels have faced many political barriers on its way to success. One such incident is the Arab boycott of American companies. Arab countries have boycotted businesses with countries that do businesses with Israel even though the issue was not directly related to America. Most of the American companies like Ford, IBM and Hilton were blacklisted by the Arabs. Hilton Hotels continued to expand its business in Israel and Egypt along with promoting peace in the region. Hilton Hotel received no threat from Israel after opening its hotel in Egypt. Economic Factors: The internet is not severely alive to the efficient economic cycles. However, it is observed that the tourism or hotel sales are dejected due to unnatural economic changes in those countries from which customers are booking and reserving the products. These changes include in economic growth, interest rates, rising prices or currency fluctuations that can eliminate tourism organization s cost advantage and can have an adverse consequence on the margins. Hilton has formed alliances with various organizations and also strategic agreements to continue its prosperity. Social Factors: Sociology changes and changes in customers attitudes towards new technology and internet in particularly will have absolute wallop on internet and hospitality industries respectfully. Time customers are Thomas More experienced and innovative in the use of engineering science. The social system of rules dimension moldiness includes the larger mixer and persuasion processes through with which the interests of the dissimilar social groups interact with one another and with the technology. Hilton has figured its services suitable for all the sectors. It has provisions for theatres, conference rooms for business delegates, U-shaped bedrooms and board rooms, dinner halls social gatherings and other similar activities. Technological Factors: Hilton has implemented electronic marketing as part of its technology drive. The rooms booked over the web for the Hilton hotel accounts for half billion dollars. Hilton has developed its own system of technological department for managing the international operations worldwide. Hilton is among the few hotels that use internet for booking rooms. Hilton has merged with various firms like Starwood for expansion and also for its technologic advantage. Hilton International use computers in their core information physical processing centers of selling and statistical distribution, front office, back-office, and beverages control. Information technologies are dispersing in eight key areas of hotel trading operations like selling, distribution, reservations and gross sales, telecommunications, guest accounting, room management, back-office, food and drinks, control energy management and safety and security. Merchandise distribution is a critically important mathemati cal function of Hilton International. Information technologies, such as computerized reservations systems and video brochures, aid hotels in selling and distributing their bed nights. For Hilton the employment of information technologies to nexus neurotic their front office, back office and beverages departments may be essential for the businesslike and cost-effective bringing of their services. However, it aim not be decent to warranty the sales agreement of hotel bed nights without links to international selling and statistical distribution networks building bed nights cannot be sold. Ecological Factors: Hilton New York has unveiled eco-centric initiatives as part of its two-years of celebration of generating clean power with fuel cell technology. Hilton New York has performed various leading-edge initiatives throughout the hotel. (Organic Fertilizer Waste Vector Decomposition System) This system was set up to reduce the 8 tons of wet rubbish which is approximately equal to 5000 meals produced on an average at the building each day. This system facilitates the employees to dispose of table and kitchen scraps into unit which is a size of chest freezer. This system eliminates nearly 400 bags of garbage per day. (Water Purification System) Hilton New York has deployed an on-site water purification system created by the Natural Water. The Natural water system is connected to the existing water source. This water system of rules has eliminated nearly 12 000 expendable glass and plastic bottles from paper routine change of location in the hotel. Legislative Factors:- The hoteliers in US are about to expect lobbying and assembly action that will feeling travel companionship taxation and card bank check which are important issues to the lodging manufacture according to the American Hotel and Lodging connection. The association believes that this move will certainly bear an impact on the industry. Chris Nassetta the CEO of the Hilton Hotels has same that it is a greater menace than people are giving it credit for. Building companionship executives fearfulness the execution of the this statute law as they would no choice but to brand up what they consider as incomprehensible gross by levying high monetary value onto hotels. 6. SWOT Analysis of Hilton Hotels Hilton hotels corporation is also recovering from the event of September eleven the like all Major building corporations. This tragic homo event also delivered a financially annihilating blow to the traveling industry as a unit and to the building industry in particular. In order to fully recover and thrive in the coming old age Hilton mustiness assess its overall all strengths and weaknesses as it moves forward done the new millennium. The favorable grind analytic thinking sheds any easy on any of the pitfalls and opportunities that await the Hilton Hotels. Strengths Hilton Hotel Corporation is a well-established organization and industry leader in the hospitality industry. It is well diversified across the industry with hotels in the high end, business and mid-priced classes in their product mix. It also possesses solid integration features such as owning the companies that manufacture its furniture and has invested in online reservation travel enterprises Weaknesses It may be two narrowly focused making it exposed to a downturn in the global economy and other world-wide misfortunes that could limit global travel such as the bird-flu and a significant terrorist strike. It may be defenseless to workers strikes and crack down on undocumented workers in the U.S. Most of its holdings are in the U.S. Opportunities It should offer a range of characteristic and expert services to the high end guests and high whitecaps such as wedding planning hosting, spas that specialize in personal services and personal trainers. It should look to expand into or purchase a cruise line. A cruise ship is little more than a hotel that floats this would essentially match what it currently doing with its leased properties Gaming activities would spurt regulation, etc. Take advantage of emerging markets, especially with business class and mid-priced markets. Threats It must be careful not overstretch its labors to mix entertaining and betting The delay of credit and other side effects of betting can slowly but surely chew profits. September 11th was a major blow to the hotel industry. A similar event could result in another down turn. By studying national and regional industry trends Hilton Corporation will be capable to return advantage of opportunities that will enable growth piece identifying threats that may affect profitableness. Growing in the hotel and cordial reception manufacture will include a continuing focusing on gambling International enlargement and exploitation all media to promote its products to potential customers. One advisable strategy for Hilton is to emphasize the grandness of family in all its hotels including the gambling and gambling casino locations. Las Vegas has exhausted millions to attract families by adding childrens attractions as well spring as the conventional casinos for the adults. Most of the hotels rich person at affair a little country devoted to colonnade games. However some hotels have luxuriant arcades plot areas and child attention centers motivated for those traveling with children Hilton Hotels Corporation, 2007. Hilton needs to ensure they are right field in the middl e of this demographic of parents traveling with children. Spell the focusing can stillness be on the senior high school dollars that are tossed around in the casinos by the parents it will be critical that the edifice have the facilities usable that testament attract parents with children to check at the property. Since location is a greater requirement and holiday clip has become one of the few multiplications that families are capable to spend superior clip together, Hilton essential capitalize on this marketplace section. 7. Evaluation of the Strategic Options After analyzing the internal and external environments, it is important for Hilton Hotel Corporation to identify the strategic options that are available. This gives them the opportunity to select the most suitable strategic option for the corporation. The strategic options are evaluated on the following criteria: The required resources The degree to control over future strategies The speed with which a change in the position of SBUs can be achieved Strategic options Environment Competencies Expectation of the company Risk involved Market Penetration Gain market share for advantages Superior resources and skill force to adopt this option Increase return by using the current strategies Low risk Market Development Current market is saturated, opportunity to enter new segment, new geographical areas Current product portfolio can be used. Increase return by using the current strategies Medium risk Demographic Segmentation Focus on age and low income group to get competitive advantage Skilled force to adopt this option using current product portfolio Increase return by using the current strategies High risk Backward Integration Become a furniture manufacturer Skilled force to adopt this option with new product line Increase return developing new strategies Medium risk Joint venture Obtain local management to reduce risk Distinctive skilled force with new and existing product Increase return developing new strategies Low risk Recommendations and Justification for Strategic Options After an internal and external analysis of Hilton Hotel Corporation and evaluation of the strategic options the following growth strategies for the company are recommended. Market Penetration Acquisition of motels Market development Excursionists Demographic segmentation Backpackers:Â  18-28 years, no children. Attracted to adventurous activity, consider themselves travellers not tourists, generally well-educated and cost conscious. Empty Nesters:Â  Parents whose children have flown the family nest, between 43 and 58 of age, well-educated and medium disposable income. Backward Integration Distribution of furniture manufacturer Joint Venture Expansion of businesses other than the western world Strategies Attractiveness Company strengths Level of importance Market Penetration (Acquisition of motels) Very high Highly recognized brand name in the western world High [Company doesnt have motels in US and UK ] Market Development Obtain the market of (Excursionists ) Very high Highly recognized brand name in the western world Very high demographic segmentation (Backpackers and (Empty Nesters) High Highly recognized brand name in the western world high Backward Integration (Supplier of furniture) Moderate Highly recognized brand name in the western world Low Joint Venture (Acquire some assets in Pakistan) Moderate Highly recognized brand name in the western world Moderate Conclusion Marketing is the lifeblood for any business organization which can be defined as the collection and coordination of interrelated activities. The degree and the impact of marketing planning determines the success or failure of a business organization as they help in the analyzing the markets and also the needs of the customers. The founder of Hilton hotels is the Conrad Hilton which was renamed as Capital Hilton in the year 1977. Many celebrated guests have considered Hilton group of hotels as home away from home which was trademark for customer service and hospitality. Hilton group of hotels have been affected by the political controversies in the Middle East but it didnt confine its growth in the region. The organization went on to open its hotels in Egypt and Israel amidst controversies and also promoted peace in the process. Apart from political and legislative factors remaining of the PESTEL factor didnt affect the Hilton hotels business across the world. The marketing planning l ived up to the expectations of the expectations of the Hilton Hotels. The marketing approach used by Hilton is geocentric to a great extent. The hotel chains in the US failed to attract the guests at the beginning of 2002 vacation season later they managed to balance the figures. Therefore it can be concluded that the Hilton group of hotels is performing to standards of its reputation but there is plenty scope for the American based organization to develop further. References Cathy A. Enz, Hospitality Strategic Management Concepts and Cases: 2nd Edition Stephen P. Robbins, Mary Coulter, Principles of Management: 10th Edition Philip Kotler, John T. Bowen, James C. Makens, Marketing for Hospitality and Tourism: 5th Edition Gerry Johnson, Kevan Scholes, Exploring Corporate Strategy: 6th Edition Johnson G, Scholes K, Whittington R., 2008, Exploring Corporate Strategy, 8th Edition, FT Prentice Hall, Essex.

Alan Bennetts Talking Heads Essay -- Alan Bennett Talking Heads Essay

Alan Bennett's "Talking Heads" "Talking heads" by Alan Bennett is a collection of monologues in which the audience are showed into the life of a character and given an insight into the character's personality and situation.peoples lives are portrayed in comic ways leaving the audience feeling sympathy and guilt for the character in laughing at their misfortune. Monologues are a long speech made by one person. This style of script is really effective and has a powerful effect on the audience. These monologues were written for television broadcasting, programmes presented in this way are put under the genre of tragi-comedy. This style of script has a dramatic effect upon the audience because from one statement , several emotions arise, for example Irene writing to someone informing them that their wife is a prostitute it is comic that she would care to write a letter about something that does not concern her of this sort of information but in another way it displays pathos because she is has enough time to spare to have such an interest in finding out information such as this. The talking heads monologues often give an exaggerated story largely influenced by the environment and era in which the characters live in. For example Doris' jaded views of nursing homes which are perhaps stereotypically nursing homes from the era in which she brought up in. This cynical view also emphasises the lack of respect in the ironic way that an elderly person has been influenced by negative views of the older generation. Within this essay I am going to analyse the talking heads scripts and bring about my point of views as well as also using my background knowledge on the era and several other topics which seem to o... ...eotype people which displays irony as they fit into 3 groups of people which are well known to be stereotyped: porn stars, o.a.p's and interfering busy-bodies. "When I saw his vest it had electrician written all over it." Lesley says on meeting a man with a tattoo. I think these stereotypical associations are made due to their ignorance towards different cultures, classes and race. As a conclusion to this essay I feel that Alan Bennett has created these monologues effectively through the use of pathos which is present through all the monologues. He enforces feeling brought about by the pathos with metaphors as well as clichà © phrases.The television episodes are simple but effective in setting an atmosphere appropriate to the monologue. He brings the characters to a level which we can all relate to in some way which makes the impact of tragedy far deeper.

Achievements of science Essay

The history of human civilization is a record of the achievements of science, amongst other things. We have been observing great scientific achievements since the dawn of the 20th century. But the invention which has brought about a revolutionary change in the world is computer. The history of computer science began long before the modern discipline of computer science that emerged in the 20th century, and hinted at in the centuries prior. The progression, from mechanical inventions and mathematical theories towards the modern concepts and machines, formed a major academic field and the basis of a massive worldwide industry. The man behind the thought of this great invention was a British professor of mathematics named Charles Babez. In 1830, he designed a machine named â€Å"Analytical Engine† which had common sides with the present structure of computer. Then step by step, computer got its current shape through various procedure and research. In terms of working criteria, there are three kinds of computers. These are analog, digital and hybrid. The analog computer works by chronologically counting of shifting figures and the digital computer works by using mathematical methods and counting electric waves. The hybrid computer is a combination of the above two; it works by using both characteristics of analog and the digital. According to the size, space and working capacity, there are four variations of digital computer: super computer, mainframe computer, mini-frame computer and micro computer. The total figure of computer is divided into three main units: input unit, central processing unit (CPU), output unit. The input unit receives the data and delivers to memory, memory stores it for the time being and the arithmetic logic unit defines it and directs to process it with necessary programs and delivers the result to output unit to present and memory stores the result permanently if needed. The whole procedure is executed by the control unit. The arithmetic logic unit, control unit and memory constitute the CPU. The fields of application of computer are uncountable. From space research to personal amusement, each and every fact of human race is being influenced by this machine. Governmental issues, commercial vocations, scientific analysis, educational tasks and various works are being operated and controlled automatically by its graft. Now, scientists are trying to invent artificial intelligence and if that’ll possible, computer will be substitute of human. There is no argument that computer has done incalculable benefits to man. But as it’s a  machine, it can also be operated against mankind. So, it depends on us to use it in a proper way and get the best output from it and have a life of comfort, easy and peace.

Cache Level 3 Childcare- Unit 2 Assignment

Unit 2 Assignment A child develops through its whole life. They can develop; physically, linguistically, intellectually, socially and behaviourally. â€Å"Physical development is the way in which the body increases in skill and becomes more complex in its performance† [Meggitt, 2000, Page 2]. Twenty five days after conception; the body of the chid has developed immensely from the small fertilised egg. Up to birth the foetus mainly develops physically however once the child is born the child then begins the long process of development. Not only do the gross motor skills and the fine motor skills develop on the baby, but the sensory development also widens on the child. Birth to 12 months Motor control develops from the head, moves down through the arms and the trunk and then to the legs and feet, according to an item on early development on the online magazine Parenting. Initial movements are reflexive in nature, such as turning the head to the side when the cheek is stroked, which aids in feeding. As the initial survival reflexes fade, motor skills are related to the growing ability to observe and interact with the environment. At 3 months of age, the infant progresses to lifting the head and chest up when lying in its belly and may press up with its arms. A 3-month-old kicks its legs when lying on the belly or back, and bats at and briefly grasps toys. The World Health Organisation 1996 indicates that between 3 and 4 months, he begins rolling with belly to back first, and back to belly closer to 6 months. The following average ages of motor milestone achievement come from a 1996 study by the World Health Organisation. The average age at which infants sat without support was 6 months. The average age for standing with support was 7. 6 months. Infants in the study crawled on hands and knees at 8. 5 months. Walking with assistance occurred at 9 months. The average age of an infant who achieved standing alone was 11 months. In regards to communication a newborn infant will cry to indicate need. They will make brief eye-contact and can often respond to high-pitch tones by moving their limbs. A month after birth the baby changes from crying to cooing and gurgling to express need. They will cry in more expressive ways to experiment and learn how to make different noises. This is the basis in which the child will learn to speak and communicate more effectively. By the age of 3 months the child can change their tone and intensity to express a more important need such as feeding or pain. They can also become more conversational in which this is the point where the child will learn turn-taking and from this will be able to communicate at an older age with their parents or carers more effectively. When the child is 6 months old they can understand simple words such as ‘bye-bye’. They can also make gestures to support speech such as raising their arms to be picked up. At this age they begin to progress to babbling using monosyllables and later combining these to begin forming their first words. By their first birthday the child will be able to understand the command ‘no’ and will soon imitate noises made by the environment around them and in particular the noises made by their careers. The child will also be able to point to support their language such as ‘mummy’ whilst pointing to their mum. They will also be able to say 2-6 simple words by combining their monosyllables. The child will also experiment with babbling to make up new words with no meaning. 2 months-23 months A child can walk unsupported across a room with stopping or changing direction between 13 and 15 months. Around 18 months, kicking and throwing balls, running, climbing stairs with assistance, and propelling scoot toys join the toddler's set of mobility and play skills. Between the ages of 12-23 months the child will be able to name simple parts of their body such as head and hands, they will also be able to identify pictures such as dog, cat and car. At eighteen months the child’s vocabulary will extend to around 40 words and will be able to understand around 80 words. Their speech extends to the holophrastic stage and often this is supported by gestures. They will also be able to recognise their own name and will be most likely be able to pronounce it. 24 months-35 months Between the ages of 2 and 3, balance improves and the toddler walks with a smoother gait. During this period she learns to stand briefly on one foot, walk backwards, and walk on tiptoes. A child jumps in place around 24 months and progresses to jumping over a small obstacle by 36 months. At 24 months she climbs a small ladder and goes down a small slide, then manoeuvres on a variety of playground equipment around 35 months. Between 30 and 34 months, toddlers begin to walk up stairs alternating feet without a hand held or use of a railing. Other play skills expected within a few months of the third birthday are catching a playground ball that has been tossed to the child and pedalling a tricycle. At the age of 2 their language develops to the telegraphic stage meaning their speech is similar to telegrams, approximately two or three words which express a need or command. At 2 the child will often ask many questions to extend their vocabulary further, such as ‘what’s that? ’ They will share songs and rhymes however will be unsure of some words. This changes at the age of 30 months when the child will be able to say some nursery rhymes with little support and will begin to speak to themselves (monologues) through play. Between three to seven years a child changes physically in many ways. The child becomes physically more independent and therefore allows the gift of exploration to enhance learning. 3 years Towards the end of the Childs third year they can build towers with 9 or more bricks, walk backwards and jump the steps. Also the child will gain a good spatial awareness meaning they can move around objects efficiently. The child can also copy letters such as ‘v’, ‘h’, and ‘t’ due to the use of only straight lines. This shows the child is not yet gained accurate pencil control to attain curved letters. At the age of three a child, if another language is spoken around them will be able to become bilingual and this becomes apparent by saying hello or other simple words in another language. They can begin simple conversations however often missing out conjunctions and articles (the, and, a). They finally can use personal pronouns and plurals correctly meaning that further vocabulary has been drastically expanded. years Children of this age often take challenges to enjoy the sense of risk. [Hughes] (See appendix I) Risk enhances play and also encourages children to venture out from their normal behaviour. Risks taken often include climbing trees, making sharp turns on a tricycle and tiptoe; which are all achievable by the age of four years. When addressing fine mot or skills, the child can thread small beads on to a thick lace, can hold a pencil in correct fashion and can copy the letters, ‘x’, ’v’, ’h’, ’t’ and ‘o’. A four year old child is also capable of naming four primary colours with ease. The language development of a four year old is when many confusions are apparent. A four year old child will be confused with fact and fiction and from this will begin to ask more questions to develop a better understanding. They will be able to relay a story in which they have recently read or experienced with stating the key points however will miss out certain points of necessary information. 5 years A child of 5 years often includes rhythm in their movement whether it is dancing or running. They have good balance and many children when they reach the age of 5 can ride a bike unsupported. They also have good co-ordination enabling more ‘exciting’ and ‘interesting’ play due to the ability to change play environments; for example outdoors, or specific games such as football. The child can also have effective pencil control allowing the opportunity to explore different letters involving curves such as ‘u’, ‘c’, ‘a’ and ‘y’. They can also use a knife and fork meaning a greater sense of independence will be achieved. [Montessori] (See appendix II) A child of five years of age will love telling jokes and riddles and will often gain an interest in reading and writing. They will be able to recognise their name when written down and will attempt to write it with support. They can differentiate past, present and future and will be able to change words to the correct form for the context. 6 years Steward,J: http://www. stokespeaksout. org/grownups/Developing%20Pencil%20Grasp%20. Developing Pencil Grasp-2008 A child of 6 years is gaining strength and agility in their physical movements. Many children have better co-ordination and find that they participate more in activities such as hopping, skipping and throwing/catching balls accurately. In regards to fine motor skills children can build a straight tower of cubes, can hold a pen with a dynamic tripod grasp (see left) and can write letters of a similar size such as ‘a’ and ‘o’. A child of six years will begin to speak more fluently and this is where the turn-taking takes its force. Many children of this age will be able to pronounce many of the phonetic sounds of their language and will be able to recognise these in many spoken words. This basic knowledge of phonetics is what is the scaffolding for furthering their vocabulary and learning new words. 7 years At this age children can climb and play on apparatus with a precise skill using their outstretched arms for balance. They can control their speed when moving (running) and can swerve to avoid accidents. Their increased stamina at the age of seven allows a child to participate in more activities such as swimming or skating. Their fine motor skills are improving drastically with their written form in proportion and accurate. Letters are differentiated now and are in the correct shape. Threading is more efficient with a seven year old being able to sew using a large needle and thread. At seven a child will be able to express themselves not only in speech but in non-verbal communication also. The development of their fine motor skills and their ability of writing letters correctly often allows the child to use the written form to express themselves. Jean Piaget’s theory on language acquisition gives a clear idea on the linguistical development of the child. Piaget states that there are four stages in which a child develops their language. These are; Sensory-motor period, Pre-operational period, Egocentrism, and the Operational period. The sensory-motor period (Birth-2 years) states that children are born with basic schemas (sequence of cognitive actions) such as sucking. In this stage children’s language becomes egocentric meaning that they talk to themselves like monologues. The Pre-operational period happens between the ages of 2 and 7. Their schemas allow them to learn new words quickly and they begin to make telegraphic sentences such as â€Å"Ben has milk†. During this stage children will often talk about things in the future or will be able to discuss their feelings, this showing symbolic language. Egocentrism begins towards the final year of the pre-operational stage. Egocentrism is common among many children to develop their play further. Animism is also common at the same stage as egocentrism where a child considers everything to be alive, this can include inanimate objects. Finally the operational period begins at the age of 7 and continues right through to adulthood. This stage is divided into two separate sections Chomsky’s nature theory of language development in children shows that children are born with an ability to understand language structures. Chomsky believes that children initially possess, then develop without being affected by where they live. This is called ‘Universal Grammar’ and is inbuilt in all human language systems. This then moves on to the critical period which means that children reach a stage in which their language is high in alertness. At this point (4-5 years) children should be frequently exposed to language and if this does not happen the child’s language does not develop and the child doesn’t have a high amount of language. After the critical period has been reached it is near impossible for the child to develop their language. There are many different types of observation types you can do when observing children. Three types I have used in my observations are: Written/Narrative: This is the most common type of observation technique. It is used to record a naturally occurring event (free description) or a structured recording, where a certain task is set, appropriate to the ability of the child. It provides a description of an event unfolding in front of you, written in past tense so that it is easy for anyone to understand what is happening. Advantages: You are using a skill which you practice every day and that is familiar to other people * Little equipment is required (timer, paper and a pen) * Little preparation needed and no formal planning is essential * The observation can be carried out at almost anytime Disadvantages: * You may not be able to explain all the events which are happening very quickly * Sometimes can prove difficult to write down all information * Observers with little experience may f ind themselves recording something irrelevant to the observation * May be repetitious and boring May produce a lot of information Checklists: A form is used in this observation to help the observer look for particular skills that a child has. This method is often used as part of an assessment of a child’s stage of development. It is useful to find out what stage a child is at. Particularly useful in regards to physical development. Advantages: * A quick way of presenting a great deal of information * Results are obvious and understandable * Can be repeated to access development Can be used by parents for the nursery’s benefit. Disadvantages: * Does not explain how competent a child is at that task only explains that they can do it * Does not give a clear picture Mapping: This type of observation is a short hand way of showing information about an individual or sometimes a group of children. A mapping chart can sometimes be used to see how a child uses equipment in the setting by drawing a plan of the space being used for the observation and drawing lines to show where the child has been. Advantages: * Helpful in planning the use of equipment * Easy to show information * Can highlight likes and dislikes of certain equipment Disadvantages: * Limited use * It only shows their preferences are rarely shows developmental progress Maintaining confidentiality is essential. It is important that you ask permission to observe the child and ask if you are allowed to use the information. If a parent/carer does not wish for the child to be observed it is important that this is followed. When completing the observation it is important that the child is unaware they are being observed this is because it will single out the child from the others and this may be stressful for the child. It is important that once the observation has been completed the observation is kept in the child’s folder in a locked cupboard so no other persons can view it. If for reasons including other professionals needing to view the observation it is important that the child’s name is not present on the form and that the parent is contacted before the information is shared. When doing an observation it is professional if the child’s name is not present and in fact the use of ‘Child A’ for example, to be used instead. It is essential that no child’s personal information is shown on the form such as date of birth and in fact a rough age is more appropriate such as 2 years 2 months. This is so the child’s personal information is kept confidential between their key worker and the child/parent. The Data Protection Act 1998 ensures that all personal information is kept hidden and locked away in a storage area where only the specific people can access the information. The only information held should be relevant to the aim of the observation and no information should be collected for personal use of the setting. Information should only be shared once consent has been given and this is for individual persons only. So for example another professional who will be supporting a particular child (physiotherapist, speech and language therapist, etc). In regards to confidentiality of observations parents are entitled to see the observation and under no circumstances should this entitlement be declined. Personal views on a child should not be taken into consideration and no part knowledge of the child should be present in the observation, such as the child has improved since the last observation, as the observation should be objective. At my setting the policy about observations is when observations are carried out the practitioner is to As the child in my observations is 2 years of age, she is at the stage of physical development where she can stand on one foot, walk backwards or on tiptoes, jumping over an obstacle, cycle and climb. These skills are all shown in my observation mapping (observation 2) as the child goes through a cycle of; running, walking, running, cycling, skipping, climbing, sitting, climbing, running, jumping and finally running again. This shows that the child is very confident about being physical in an outdoor environment. In the observation it is clear that the child takes her time getting on to the cycle or changing their skills. For example; 1:09 the child has finished on the cycle however she takes until 1:13 to skip to the next apparatus. This may be because she may have mastered the skills needed, but she could be possibly uncertain of moving swiftly from one skill to the next. The child is showing the cycling skills of a four year old as it is a milestone of a four year old child to make sharp turns on a tricycle. The child in my observations completed two sharp turns, possibly not intentionally, and therefore this leaves the child capable of a four year olds physical skills. However, in my third observation the child cannot walk on tiptoe. This is a key milestone of a two year old and this shows that the child is not fully ble to complete all the milestones. Another milestone she couldn’t achieve was hopping on one foot. Both these skills require good balance which is something this child has still not achieved. Although the child is physically capable of normal day-to-day activities the child will fall behind physically if her balance does not develop. Observations are useful in regards to planning. For exa mple mapping observations show a clear picture on their preferences in the setting. It shows what activities when go to and how long the child is there for. Observations are only useful when used and evaluated on in time. This therefore allows the practitioner to plan a child’s activities to their preferences. Observations also highlight in which stage the child’s development is it and therefore shows the practitioner at what stages they should be planning for and providing the appropriate activities. Observations also highlight any learning difficulties that child may have which will highlight if any extra support is needed which therefore can be referred to the appropriate professional. It will also highlight any problems the settings have in providing for the child for example if the child plays with no toys then it is clear that their maybe no activities the child may be interested in and therefore daily observations should be done to see if there are any activities which the child enjoys and in time the practitioners will be able to plan effectively. Finally observations can show the way a child learns so therefore it can help practitioners plan on how many children and adults should be involved in an activity which will develop one individual child’s development. It is clear from the observations that the child is very physically capable however the planning around improving the child’s balance is vital. Without balance the child will struggle with not only complex physical movements but simple walking would prove difficult and would highly likely result in the child falling over. So it is important that the planning highlights the problem of balance and provides activities around that. An individual plan for this child would be to complete an obstacle course so many times a week, slowly using less support to improve the balance. Providing challenging equipment for this child would allow the child to feel, when ready, to use the apparatus this therefore developing balance. In my second observation it is clear that the child likes to use a high percentage of the playground. However it is clear to see that the child does not use the sandpit or the far right side of the playground. This could be taken into consideration when planning to ensure that sand is not used to encourage development of the child because the child does not take an interest in the sandpit. Also by completing the observations the setting can discuss with the parents the child’s preferences at the setting and find out how to implement popular objects into developing skills. Observing children can have implications on the practitioners work. It is important the practitioner is fully trained and understands how to plan, complete and evaluate observations. It is important that the right type of observation is used in the right context with a suitable amount of knowledge about confidentiality to observe. Whilst a practitioner is observing it is likely that they will be thinking about the reliability of their observation. It is easy to miss important information when observing when you have other children as possible distractions, or other issues such as fire alarms. This then questions the reliability of the observation, how much essential information is apparent in the observation? Am I observing the child correctly? Observations are forever changing with practitioners being forever told of new ways to observe, what can’t be included in observations and the initiatives and legislation behind observations. What is the appropriate observation technique for children. The problem I believe is that children need to be observed in different types of styles. For example, if I was working with a child who had only very basic skills I would use a checklist observation to ensure they can complete the basics however if a child is known to be more complex than a narrative type of observation is more effective as small skills can be highlighted to support their skills. On the other hand, do observations really support children’s learning? It, as all practitioners know, is important to observe children to highlight issues with children’s development but the issue becomes a serious problem when practitioners begin to use observations to plan a child’s day at setting. One observation, if aiming to gain a complete knowledge about a child, is simply not enough. A child will act differently throughout a day at setting due to emotions, different practitioners working, different activities and being tired, so is it really appropriate to take judgements from one observation every couple of days. In theory, effective observations should be taken 3-4 times daily, ensuring that the child has been observed in key points in the day. This therefore gives practitioners a clear idea about the child and their behaviour. But this is simply not feasible in many settings due to lack of time and staff training. Also, although practitioners should not put their own knowledge into observations it is common for practitioners to make judgements about children. One disadvantage of accessing children through observations is that you are only getting information about the child for that selected amount of time. As stated earlier a child’s behaviour will change continuously throughout a day at setting, what i believe would be more effective would be to record a child’s behaviour throughout the whole day and then after a certain amount of time, e. g. a week, another recording is taken. This information can then be compared giving more information about the child. At my setting, it is clear that they are using both current and older theories in their work with children. The two theories I highlighted earlier are specifically used in the foundation stage whilst considering the critical period of 4-5 year olds, it is clear that the practitioners focus on language in the early years units of primary schools. I believe that Chomsky’s theory of critical period is very important in practice and often by the time the children reach the year 1 stage they are very fluent in both written and spoken language. Bibliography Meggitt, C. and Sunderland, G. (2000) Child development: an illustrated guide. Heinemann Educational. Hobart,C (1999) A practical guide to Child Observation and Assessment. nd Edition. Nelson Thornes ltd Harding, J. and Meldon-Smith, L. (2000) How to make observations and assessments. 2nd edn. London: Hodder and Stoughton. Baldwin, M (2003) The Data Protection Act 1998- The summary http://www. dpa. lancs. ac. uk/summary. htm, Lancaster University http://www. little-learners-childcare. co. uk/PlayworkTheories. aspx: Playwork Theories, L ine 6:26 http://www. dailymontessori. com/montessori-theory/: Montessori Theory, Line 9:15 Piaget, J(2001) The language and thought of the child. Routledge LTD Bailey, D (2000) Critical thinking about Critical periods. Brookes Publishing Co